Aeronautical engineer

An aeronautical, or aerospace, engineer applies scientific and technological principles to research, design, develop, maintain and test the performance of civil and military aircraft, missiles, weapons systems, satellites and space vehicles. They also work on the different components that make up these aircraft and systems.
The role is focused on enhancing high-quality flight safety and standards as well as reducing system costs. Increasingly, the role addresses the environmental impact of air travel. Aeronautical engineering offers a wide range of roles in research, design, development, testing, manufacture and maintenance. Many engineers specialise in a particular area such as propulsion, computational fluid dynamics, aerodynamics or materials and structures. The aerospace industry is well established in the UK, and constant expansion in air travel means that large numbers of aeronautical engineers are needed.

Typical work activities

Typical work activities vary according to the role, specialism and employer. Tasks typically include:

• applying the principles of science and technology to create aircraft, components and support equipment;
• researching and developing design specifications;
• undertaking systematic manufacturing, involving the assembly and modification of components;
• supervising the assembly of airframes and the installation of engines, instruments and other equipment;
• participating in flight test programmes to measure take-off distances, rate of climb, stall speeds, manoeuvrability and landing capacities;
• resolving issues that arise during the design, development and testing processes;
• maintaining aircraft for full operation including making regular inspections, maintenance and servicing;
• measuring and improving the performance of aircraft, components and systems;
• modifying designs to improve safety features or minimise fuel consumption and pollution;
• developing repair procedures as well as working out and managing schedules for repair and maintenance;
• investigating aircraft accidents;
• collating information, interpreting data and publishing the results of specific projects in technical report form;
• using computer-aided design (CAD) software to create designs and plans;
• storing paperwork for approved data (drawings, technical instructions, assessments and calculations);
• working with teams, suppliers, clients and managers to agree budgets, timescales and specifications;
• project managing, including scheduling resources and staff and managing budgets;
• communicating technical and regulatory advice to clients, teams, suppliers and other professionals within the aerospace industry and presenting data to groups and individuals.

• Range of typical starting salaries: £20,000 - £25,000.
• Range of typical salaries for aeronautical engineers with experience: £28,000-£40,000.
• Range of typical salaries at senior levels: £45,000 - £65,000.
• Higher starting salaries may be offered to those with Masters or research qualifications. Larger, more renowned employers may offer higher salaries.
• Working hours are mainly nine to five, but extra hours may be required to complete projects to deadlines. Aeronautical engineers may work on an 'on-call' consultation basis dealing with such issues as a change in the priority of repairs or in case of an emergency investigation.
• Work is undertaken in offices, factory production hangars or aeronautical laboratories. You may have to travel to sites and other industrial companies in order to inspect or test aircraft.
• Design work in a laboratory will involve the use of sophisticated computer visualisation tools and software.
  The work is often undertaken as part of a team with other colleagues and departments. There is heavy reliance on research.
• Self-employment opportunities are limited.
• Working at the forefront of technology makes long career breaks difficult as professionals need to keep up to date with industry developments.
• Jobs are widely available in a number of locations in the UK and abroad. The UK has a very advanced aerospace industry, which is at the forefront of technological and scientific development.
• Women have the same opportunities as men. Only a small percentage of women, however, are working as aeronautical engineers. Organisations such as The Women's Engineering Society (WES) , Women Into Science, Engineering and Construction (WISE) , Portia (Gateway into Science, Engineering and Technology for all women)  and The UKRC  offer support and access to initiatives relevant to women engineers.
• The work of aeronautical engineers requires dedication and enthusiasm. It may vary in content from day to day and can be stressful when deadlines approach. The work must be precise, as the consequences of human error can be serious.
• Travel within a working day and absence from home at night are sometimes necessary due to visits to aircraft workshops or hangars to inspect aircraft that require modifications or repairs. Overseas travel may be required to attend courses and conferences on aeronautical engineering.

clinical biochemist (chemistry)

Clinical biochemists carry out complex analytical work. They analyse and interpret data relating to patients' samples to assist with the investigation, diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
Clinical biochemists work with other heath professionals, such as biomedical scientists, to detect changes in the complex biochemistry of body fluids, for example, increases in glucose levels in diabetes mellitus.
They develop and implement new techniques, interpret results and liaise with and advise clinical staff. They are responsible for the evaluation and quality assessment of diagnostic tests and play a role in developing and managing hospital and community analytical services.

Typical work activities

A typical laboratory processes several thousand samples per day. Of these, a few hundred results will be abnormal and need to be scrutinised by a clinical biochemist. Other work activities include:

• planning and organising work in clinical biochemistry laboratories, much of which is automated and computer assisted;
• performing clinical validation: checking abnormal results identified by automated analysers and deciding if further tests are necessary;
• carrying out complex biochemical analyses on specimens of body fluids and tissues, using spectrophotometry, mass spectroscopy, high performance chromatography, electrophoresis, immunoassay and, increasingly, molecular biological techniques;
• auditing the use and diagnostic performance of tests, as part of national and international quality assurance programmes;
• identifying the cause of and resolving any poor analytical performance problems;
• searching scientific literature for evidence of specificity and sensitivity of a diagnostic test;
• devising and conducting basic or applied research;
• writing reports, submitting funding bids and conducting research with clinical staff;
• liaising with clinical and technical staff, and contacting patients;
• training staff, reviewing the need for staff training, supervising MSc students, and giving lectures to medical undergraduates;
• attending and contributing to local and national scientific meetings and conferences;
• managing a clinical biochemical laboratory as career progresses.

• Starting salaries for pre-registration trainees (Band 6) are from £25,472.
• Salaries for post-registration trainees (Band 7) are from £30,460.
• Consultant Clinical Scientist posts (Bands 8C- 9) can command a salary starting from £54,454.
• Progression to consultant positions is not automatic and the seniority of these posts means that the number of available positions at this level is quite low.
• In addition to the salaries stated above, those working in London and the surrounding areas may expect to receive a High Cost Area Supplement of between 5% and 20% of basic salary (subject to minimum and maximum payments), depending upon their exact work location.
• It is possible to work part time following successful completion of training.
• The clinical biochemistry service is made up of medical staff, clinical scientists, biomedical scientists (BMS) and medical laboratory assistants (MLAs) working together as a team. BMS staff conduct the majority of the routine analytical work, with the support of MLAs. For details of careers as a biomedical scientist see biomedical scientist or contact the Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS) .
• There is a demand for late evenings and out-of-hours consultative work in addition to shift and weekend work to cover an extended working day, seven days per week.
• Self-employment or freelance work is unlikely.
• Career breaks are supported in the National Health Service (NHS) (see NHS Careers ), but clinical scientists must keep up to date with technological developments during any breaks and would require a period of retraining on returning to work to fulfil state registration requirements.
• Jobs are available in most areas but mainly in medium-sized or larger hospitals in urban areas. During training, there is an opportunity to experience working in a variety of different hospital laboratories. Relocation is frequently necessary for career progression.
• There is much variety with the choice of research and development (R&D) projects available, plus the satisfaction of contributing to patient care. However, coping with changes in the NHS can be stressful and workload has increased significantly in recent years.
• Travel at a local level is more common as laboratories merge. Absence from home at night and overseas travel are uncommon.

analytical chemist (chemistry)

Analytical chemists typically use a diverse range of methods to investigate the chemical nature of substances. The aim of such work is to identify and understand the substance and how it behaves in different conditions.
In the pharmaceutical industry, for example, analytical chemists are involved throughout the drug development process; they study the physical or chemical properties of drug substances and formulations, with a view to determining the quality and stability of drug products.
Analytical chemists may be involved in work as diverse as:

• chemical or forensic analysis;
• process development;
• product validation;
• quality control;
• toxicology;
• drug formulation and development.

Typical work activities

Typical work activities include:

• analysing samples from various sources to provide information on compounds or quantities of compounds present;
• using analytical techniques and instrumentation, such as gas and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), ion chromatography, electrochromatography and spectroscopy (infrared and ultraviolet, amongst others);
• interpreting data and adhering to strict guidelines on documentation when recording data;
• reporting scientific results;
• using a range of analytical techniques, instrumentation and software;
• developing new techniques for the analysis of drug products and chemicals;
• working collaboratively in cross-functional teams;
• liaising with customers, staff and suppliers;
• being aware of, and keeping up to date with, health and safety issues in all aspects of the work undertaken;
• validating methods and equipment.

Range of typical starting salaries: £16,000 - £30,000. Those entering with a PhD start on higher salaries (salary data collected January 2010).

Salaries at senior level/with experience (e.g. after 10-15 years in the role) vary, but typically range from £26,000 - £50,000 (salary data collected January 2010). Analytical chemists with management responsibilities tend to earn more.

Salaries vary depending upon the employer, geographical location and the employer’s primary business. Benefits also differ according to the employer, but free or subsidised medical insurance is common.

The working hours are nine to five, possibly with some extra hours depending upon the workload and sample schedule.

Working in multidisciplinary teams is common, as is communicating with scientists and customers from both within and outside the company.

At more junior levels, staff are likely to be predominantly lab-based, whereas staff at more senior levels are increasingly office-based.

Self-employment is very unlikely due to the significant financial investment in equipment and staffing, plus the need for accreditation. There are opportunities for freelance consultancy work, although large companies tend to have their own experts.

Part-time work and career breaks may be possible.

Jobs are widely available throughout the country and tend to be in large, localised centres. Research and development (R&D) work, however, is more common in the South.

Work may occasionally be stressful due to tight deadlines and pressure to solve problems as quickly as possible. Routine analysis may involve doing the same job for long periods of time, although this is less likely at more senior levels.

Typically, travel within a working day and absence from home overnight are not that common. Overseas travel is rare, although secondments abroad may be possible at higher grades

forensic science

Scientists provide impartial scientific evidence for use in courts of law to support the prosecution or defence in criminal and civil investigations.
Forensic scientists are primarily concerned with examining contact trace material associated with crimes. This follows the principle that 'every contact leaves a trace' that will offer potential evidence to link a suspect with the scene of the crime, the victim or the weapon.
In contrast with popular perception, this is a highly scientific role, which often involves detailed, painstaking work. Interest in forensic science has increased over the last few years, partly as a result of popular television crime dramas that do not always reflect the true nature of the work. The number of posts has also risen, due largely to advances in technology generating more research and information storage possibilities, such as the establishment of the National DNA Database.

Typical work activities

Job activities very much depend on the area of forensics in which you work. The main areas are:

• chemistry, which is connected to crimes against property, such as burglary and arson;
• biology, which is connected to crimes against people, such as murder, assault and rape;
• drugs and toxicology.

Within these areas, the work usually involves:

• chemistry - the examination of paint, chemicals, etc., including fire investigation and accident reconstruction;
• biology - DNA testing and the examination of minute contact traces, such as blood, hair, clothing fibres, etc.;
• drugs and toxicology - testing for restricted drugs, examining tissue specimens for poison detection, and the analysis of blood and urine samples for alcohol, for example in drink driving offences.

However, there is a degree of cross-over and typical work activities are likely to include some or all of the following:

• analysing samples, such as hair, body fluids, glass, paint and drugs, in the laboratory;
• applying techniques such as gas and high performance liquid chromatography, scanning electron microscopy, mass spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy and genetic fingerprinting;
• sifting and sorting evidence, often held in miniscule quantities;
• attending and examining scenes of crimes;
• recording findings and collecting trace evidence from scenes of crimes or accidents;
• inputting relevant data into computer programs;
• reviewing and supervising the work of assistants;
• presenting results of work in written form or by giving oral evidence;
• justifying findings under cross-examination in courts of law;
• researching and developing new techniques;
• liaising with team members;
• coordinating with outside agencies and offering expert advice;
• analysing and interpreting results and computer data;
• liaising with police to establish forensic strategies;
• writing detailed reports for court;
• instructing on procedures for cases.

• Starting salaries for trainee or assistant forensic scientists typically range from £16,000 to £18,000.
• An MSc or PhD in a relevant subject may enable you to start higher on the salary scale.
• With two to three years' experience, salaries increase to £25,000 - £30,000.
• Typical salaries at senior levels: £50,000+.
• Working hours are variable. Extra hours are sometimes required to get a job done in the allotted time.
• Giving evidence in court may involve working unsocial hours and having to be on call.
• Most of the work is laboratory-based, but experienced forensic scientists may have to attend crime scenes. The balance of work in the laboratory, court and office varies between roles.
• Geographical availability of posts is restricted by the location of forensic science laboratories.
• At times, the work may be stressful and distressing, particularly when attending scenes of crimes. Considerable responsibility rests on the scientists presenting and defending their evidence in court under cross-examination.
• Travel within a working day and absence from home at night are occasionally needed. Evening and weekend call-outs to scenes of crime are also common.
• Overseas work is uncommon but attendance at conferences is not unusual.

secondary school teacher (maths,chemo,bio,phys)

A secondary school teacher teaches one or more national curriculum subjects to pupils aged 11-16, or up to 19 in schools with sixth forms.
Teachers plan lessons in line with national objectives to ensure that pupils learn. They also encourage, monitor and record the progress of their pupils.
Teachers support, observe and record the progress of their class. They also plan lessons in line with national objectives with the aim of ensuring a healthy culture of learning.
Teachers must also keep up to date with developments in their subject area, new resources, methods and national objectives. Teachers liaise and network with other professionals, parents and carers both informally and formally.

Typical work activities

Typical work activities include:

• preparing and delivering lessons to a range of classes including putting up displays in the classroom;
• marking work, giving appropriate feedback and maintaining records of pupils' progress and development;
• researching new topic areas, maintaining up-to-date subject knowledge and then devising and writing new curriculum materials;
• selecting and using a range of different learning resources and equipment, including podcasts and interactive whiteboards;
• undertaking pastoral duties, such as taking on the role of form tutor, and supporting pupils on an individual basis through academic or personal difficulties;
• preparing pupils for qualifications and external examinations;
• managing pupil behaviour in the classroom and on school premises, and applying appropriate and effective measures in cases of misbehaviour;
• supervising and supporting the work of teaching assistants, trainee teachers and newly qualified teachers (NQTs);
• participating in and organising extracurricular activities, such as outings, social activities and sporting events;
• participating in departmental meetings, parents' evenings and whole school training events;
• liaising with other professionals, such as learning mentors, careers advisers, educational psychologists and education welfare officers;
• undergoing regular observations and participating in regular in-service training (INSET) as part of continuing professional development (CPD);
• teaching in middle schools, which take children aged eight or nine to 12 or 13, teaching the primary or secondary curriculum appropriate to the age of the children.

• Newly qualified teachers (NQTs) in England, Wales and Northern Ireland start on the main salary scale, which rises incrementally from £21,588 to £31,552 for England and Wales. London salaries can differ depending on location.
• In Scotland, salaries range from £19,997 to £34,200. In addition, there is a Distant Learning Allowance of £1,782 and Remote Schools Allowance of £1,074 or £2,010.
• Experienced teachers may become advanced skills teachers (in England and Wales), in which they share their highly developed skills with other teachers. In Scotland this is recognised as chartered teacher status. Teachers may move into key stage or year leaders, mentoring and management roles. Management roles in particular attract considerable salary increases.
• 39 weeks of the year are allocated for teaching and term-time hours may be long. Hours vary between schools and are usually from 8.30am until 3.30 or 4pm, but most teachers are in school before the school day starts and remain after school is finished. Marking and preparation are usually done at home. They often teach five periods a day, with lunchtimes sometimes being taken up with extracurricular or pastoral duties.
• Parents' evenings, preparation for The Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (Ofsted)  inspections, breakfast and after-school clubs, and sport, drama and field trips may all take up extra hours.
• Teachers have 13 weeks per year away from the classroom, but many use this time to work on marking, planning and preparation.
• Mobility can improve prospects, but jobs are available in most areas, especially in towns and cities, throughout the country. Staff turnover is greatest in inner-city schools.
• Teachers may be able to supplement their income through private tuition, national exam marking, teaching evening classes or writing textbooks. Part-time work and career break opportunities are available. Courses are provided for those returning to the profession. Supply teaching is an attractive and flexible option for some.
• Approximately 55% of secondary teachers are women, but proportionally more head teachers are male. The gender balance varies across subject areas, e.g. more women teach English and modern languages and more men teach mathematics and science. An objective of the Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA) is to recruit more people from Afro-Caribbean and ethnic minorities and more people with disabilities into teaching.
• Secondary school teachers do not necessarily have a base classroom and may have to carry books and equipment from room to room between lessons. The physical condition of school buildings varies enormously, as does the availability and quality of resources.
• Trips with pupils or staff development opportunities may occasionally involve staying away from home and/or overseas travel.

research scientist (maths)

Research mathematicians work in many different areas and do many different types of work. This work includes proving deep and abstract theorems; developing mathematical descriptions (mathematical models) to explain or predict real phenomena such as the spread of cancer or the flow of liquids; and applying mathematical principles to identify trends in data sets. Applied research can also contribute to the development of a commercial product or develop intelligence about business trends.
The application of mathematics is so varied that collaboration with other scientists and people in other commercial functions in industry is very common. Research is undertaken into a diverse range of pure and applied maths including algebra, analysis, combinatorics, differential equations, dynamic systems, geometry and topology, fluid mechanics, mathematical biology and numerical analysis.

Typical work activities

Mathematicians in commercial organisations are involved with developing new products and providing insight into business performance. In academic and research organisations, projects develop understanding in particular areas of maths. Despite these differences, work in both settings is usually office-based and dependent on specialist computer systems.
Typical activities include:

• identifying solutions by learning and applying new methods (e.g. designing mathematical models that interpret data in a meaningful way);
• keeping up to date with new mathematical developments and producing original mathematics research;
• using specialist mathematical software such as Mathematica, Matlab or Mathcad or using software languages such as C/C++ or Visual basic to develop programmes to perform mathematical functions;
• presenting findings at group and departmental meetings as well as to senior management;
• attending and sometimes presenting at national and international scientific conferences and meetings in a particular field of interest;
• sharing the implications of new research by producing regular reports on the development of work as well as writing original papers for publication in peer-reviewed scientific journals;
• writing applications for funding;
• managing a research team (or group of research students in academic settings).

There are very few pure research posts in universities, and most mathematicians working in research will also have teaching responsibilities. This may involve giving lectures to large groups of students, giving tutorials to small groups and setting and marking work including examinations.
In commercial settings, mathematicians are likely to be allocated specific projects. In smaller organisations, they may be involved in all stages of the product - from concept to customer. Activities may include:

producing tailored solutions to business problems using innovative and existing methods as well as suggesting new ways to analyse data
• to provide more sophisticated insights into available data;
• meeting with clients throughout projects to discuss ideas and results;
• advising clients on how to benefit from mathematical analysis, making recommendations based on these analyses.

• Typical starting salaries range from £23,000 to £35,000, depending on background and specialist subjects (salary data collected May 09).
• Typical salaries with three to five years' experience range from £29,000 to £38,000 (salary data collected May 09).
• Typical salaries at senior levels range from £30,000 to £70,000, although this will vary greatly, depending on the sector. For example, in academic settings it depends on whether the researcher is working as a leader of their own research group, is part of another research team, or has secured a lectureship while continuing with research. Professorial pay ranges from £50,000 to £65,000. In industry, the higher end of the scale (£65,000 - £70,000) will apply to team leader roles (salary data collected May 09).
• Many academic institutions have now implemented a single pay spine for all grades of staff, however some variation does occur.
• Salaries are generally good compared to other scientists. On average, larger companies pay better than smaller, specialist employers, although these smaller employers may offer earlier responsibility and opportunities to remain in preferred technical areas.
• Working hours typically include regular extra hours, but weekend or shift work is rarely, if ever, needed. The exceptions to this are academics who may face weekend working and irregular hours with additional responsibilities for postgraduate students.
• Self-employment and freelance work is possible once a technical specialism has been developed.
• Jobs are fairly widely available, but posts related to specialist research will be restricted to few institutions in certain areas. Universities, government and other research centres are located across the country.
• The work often requires working to strict deadlines and can be very demanding. There are no guarantees of instant success.
• Travel within a working day is occasionally needed. Researchers often collaborate with other departments within their institution, or with other institutions or companies, and this may involve occasional local travel. In academic roles, some national and international travel is required for attendance at conferences and symposiums to present the results of research - often with a stay of a few days.

biology prospects

When pursuing a course in biology, students acquire in-depth, subject-specific knowledge of biological systems and concepts. In addition, you develop a range of practical and technical skills from laboratory sessions and learn how to use specialist techniques and technical equipment. A biology course teaches students to confidently handle masses of diverse data and to draw conclusions.
A biology course also allows students to develop more general skills. Communication skills are learned through report writing and making presentations. Teamwork skills are developed through group projects and seminars. Biology courses also help students develop organisational skills, problem-solving skills, project and time management skills, self-reliance, initiative, business awareness and strong interpersonal skills. All of these skills are attractive to employers in all sectors.
A biology course may include an extended research project, possibly based in an existing research group. This type of work may enable you to demonstrate an ability to understand complex scientific data and information.
Consider the skills developed on your course as well as through your other activities, such as paid work, volunteering, family responsibilities, sport, membership of societies, leadership roles, etc. Think about how these can be used as evidence of your skills and personal attributes

Jobs directly related to your degree

The majority of these jobs will require you to gain further skills or do further study to enter and/or progress:

• Research scientist (life sciences) - analyses and interprets the results of experiments and field work and communicates findings to the scientific community through presentations at seminars and conferences and by publishing work in specialist literature.
• Research scientist (medical) - plans and conducts experiments to increase the body of scientific knowledge on topics related to medicine. May also aim to develop new, or improve existing, drugs or other medicine-related products.
• Pharmacologist - investigates how drugs and chemicals interact with biological systems. A pharmacologist’s aim is to understand drugs and their actions so they can be used effectively and safely. Pharmacologists also carry out research to aid drug development.
• Secondary school teacher - teaches one or more subjects to classes of pupils aged 11-18. Subjects are determined by the national curriculum but how they are taught depends on the professional judgment of the teacher.
• Higher education lecturer - teaches academic or vocational subjects to undergraduate and postgraduate students from age 18 upwards. You may also undertake research activities.
• Soil scientist - interprets and evaluates soil and soil-related information to understand how soil contributes to agricultural production, environmental quality, human health issues, climate change and biodiversity.
• Clinical molecular geneticist - uses biochemical and molecular biology techniques to identify genetic abnormalities associated with disease. Individuals are screened both before and after the appearance of symptoms.
• Nature conservation officer - works to protect, manage and enhance the local environment, including promoting and implementing local and national biodiversity action plans in partnership with statutory and voluntary organisations.

Jobs where your degree would be useful

Again, you may have to do further study or demonstrate particular skills and experience to enter these professions:

• General practice doctor - provides primary and continuing medical care for patients and are usually the first contact for patients needing medical services.
• Dentist - provides preventive and restorative treatments for problems that affect the mouth and teeth.
• Science writer - researches, writes and edits scientific news articles and features for business, trade and professional publications, specialist scientific and technical journals, and the general media.
• Public analyst - provides scientific expertise to local authorities to enable them to enforce government regulations in technical areas. Public analysts may be involved in consumer safety, safety at work, waste disposal, toxic waste analysis and emergency planning.
• Education administrator - organises and oversees administrative activities and systems that support and facilitate the smooth running of an education institution. The majority are based in higher or further education (HE or FE), but opportunities are increasingly available in schools and private colleges.
• Training and development officer - manages the learning of an organisation's workforce. The training element of the work gives staff the knowledge, understanding, practical skills and motivation to carry out particular work-related tasks.